Most minor neck pimples respond well to home remedies and over-the-counter (OTC) medications and should resolve within a few days.

People with pimples on the neck that are severe, last for longer than a few weeks, or do not respond to primary treatment should seek advice from a doctor or dermatologist.

What causes pimples on the neck?

Failing to wash the skin regularly can cause clogged pores and pimples.

Pimples occur when hair follicles become clogged. It is not uncommon for pimples to develop on the neck, especially around the nape of the neck.

Multiple pimples usually indicate acne, which is the most common skin condition in the United States.

A range of factors may increase the likelihood of clogged pores and pimples, including:

• failing to wash the skin regularly with lukewarm water and soap
• rubbing, scratching, or exfoliating the skin too aggressively
• fluctuating hormones, especially during puberty and menstruation
• being stressed
• applying heavy makeup or lotions, creams, or sunscreens that block the pores
• wearing products with artificial scents, flavors, or other non-natural additives
• using shampoos, conditioners, body washes, or soaps that contain potentially irritating ingredients, such as artificial scents, flavors, and chemicals that promote lathering
• exercising or sweating without washing the skin
• wearing scratchy or irritating fabrics
• washing the hair too infrequently
• taking certain medications

Some things may increase the risk of developing pimples on the neck specifically, such as:

• hair touching or rubbing up against the neck, especially unwashed hair
• clothing or sports equipment that rubs or puts pressure on the neck, such as a bra strap, collar, chin strap, or helmet
• not washing the neck properly or often enough
• not cleaning the neck after exercising or sweating a lot
• dirty clothes coming into contact with the neck
• a dull razor or lack of a lubricant when shaving
• not regularly or correctly exfoliating the neck after shaving
• necklaces and other jewelry that may come into contact with the neck, especially those made of plastics, false metal, and some plant-based materials
• synthetic and scratchy clothing fabrics that come into contact with the neck
• non-breathable clothing, such as polyester and rayon

Treatments and home remedies

Tea tree oil may treat pimples.

Minor pimples should clear up after a few days. However, it can take weeks or months of continual, consistent use for products to work effectively on moderate or severe acne. People will also need to continue using acne medications or remedies once the symptoms have gone away to prevent them from returning.

Home remedies can often help to speed up the healing process for pimples. These include:

• washing the area gently with soap and lukewarm water twice daily
• applying a heated compress or cloth to the area for 10–15 minutes a few times daily to draw trapped debris to the surface of the pore
• avoiding touching, picking, or scratching the pimple and the skin surrounding it
• minimizing the exposure of the pimple to sun, wind, and humidity
• loosening clothing straps or sports equipment to avoid putting pressure on the pimple and the skin around it
• avoiding shaving the entire area around the pimple until it heals

Some people use specific herbal remedies for mild acne, as they have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Essential oils that may treat pimples include:

• tea tree oil
• evening primrose oil
• rosehip oil
• sandalwood oil
• lavender oil

Dozens of OTC products exist to treat mild forms of acne. Many prescription acne medications contain the same ingredients as OTC products, just in stronger doses.

OTC washes, toners, creams, and gels for pimples typically contain between 0.025 and 10 percent of:

• salicylic acid, which is anti-inflammatory and exfoliating
• benzoyl peroxide, which is antibacterial and dries oil
• alpha hydroxy acids, including glycolic acid and lactic acid
• retinoids, such as adapalene
• niacinamide, which has anti-inflammatory properties
• sulfur, which is antibacterial

Always spread a thin, even layer of the acne medication onto the pimple and the skin surrounding it. Wash the hands carefully after using acne medications, as they often contain ingredients that can stain or bleach most fabrics and some stone or wood surfaces.

If OTC and topical prescription medications fail to clear acne, a doctor may prescribe systemic medications, which work throughout the body.

Depending on a person's sex, age, and overall health status, a doctor or dermatologist may prescribe the following for severe or chronic acne that is nodular or cystic:

• oral antibiotics
• oral isotretinoin
• hormone-control medications

Additional treatment options for severe or chronic acne include:

• extraction surgery
• chemical peels
• microdermabrasion
• phototherapy
• laser therapy

Prevention tips

Washing the neck after exercising may prevent pimples.

People can reduce the risk of developing pimples on their neck by following the recommendations below:

• washing the neck regularly with lukewarm water and scent-free, hypoallergenic soap
• washing the neck thoroughly after exercising or sweating a lot
• wearing clean clothes and changing them once they are dirty
• cleaning sports equipment that comes into contact with the neck regularly or puts pressure on it
• using soap when shaving and shaving gently
• using skin products that are oil-free and do not block pores (non-comedogenic)
• choosing makeup or beauty products that are free from harsh chemical preservatives, soaping agents (parabens), and additives such as scents, flavor, glitter, or tint
• cleaning makeup brushes regularly with an antimicrobial cleaner
• wearing cotton clothing that is free of potentially irritating chemicals
• using hypoallergenic laundry detergent and avoiding using additives, such as fabric softener and dryer sheets
• cleaning bed sheets weekly and other heavier bedding items, such as blankets and pillows, monthly (or fortnightly if the weather is warm)
• wearing neck jewelry that is free of potentially irritating materials, such as false metals, plastics, and some plant-based substances
• adjusting backpack or purse straps so that they do not put pressure on or irritate the neck

Why you should not pop a pimple

Dermatologists recommend never popping a pimple.

Popping a pimple can introduce bacteria and other microbes from the hands, potentially leading to infection of the pimple.

The forced popping can also cause the bacteria within the pimple to spread into the surrounding and deeper tissues, leading to more severe sores such as papules, pustules, nodules, and cysts. More severe acne sores can lead to permanent skin complications, such as scarring, pitting, and dark spots.

Takeaway and when to see a doctor

Many pimples on the neck will disappear on their own or respond to home treatments.

A person should talk to a doctor or dermatologist if the pimples on their neck have the following characteristics:

• severe
• painful
• bleed a lot or drain pus
• contain hard lumps or feel deep under the skin
• will not respond to at-home care and OTC medications
• last longer than 6 weeks
• seem to heal and then immediately return
• cause emotional distress

Pimples on the neck are not uncommon, and it is often possible to prevent them with proper hygiene and other lifestyle measures.

However, the medical community is still unsure about how much of an influence water consumption has on weight loss.

In this article, learn six reasons that drinking water may help a person to lose weight. We also look at how much water a person should drink each day.

Six reasons why drinking water may help you lose weight

Researchers are still unsure why drinking more water helps a person to lose weight, but many studies show some positive correlation between increased water consumption and weight loss.

Below are six reasons that water may help with losing weight.

1. Water is a natural appetite suppressant

Drinking water may aid weight loss.

When the stomach senses that it is full, it sends signals to the brain to stop eating. Water can help to take up space in the stomach, leading to a feeling of fullness and reducing hunger.

A person may also think that they are hungry when they are actually thirsty. Drinking a glass of water before reaching for something to eat can help to curb unnecessary snacking.

In a 2014 study, 50 overweight females drank 500 milliliters (mL) of water 30 minutes before breakfast, lunch, and dinner, in addition to their regular water consumption, for 8 consecutive weeks.

The participants experienced a reduction in body weight, body fat, and body mass index. They also reported appetite suppression.

A study from the previous year had yielded similar results.

2. Water increases calorie burning

Some research indicates that drinking water can help to burn calories.

In a 2014 study, 12 people who drank 500 mL of cold and room temperature water experienced an increase in energy expenditure.

They burned between 2 and 3 percent more calories than usual in the 90 minutes after drinking the water.

Water may also temporarily increase the body's resting energy expenditure, or the number of calories burned while resting.

Drinking cold water may further enhance water's calorie-burning benefits, because the body expends energy, or calories, by heating up the water for digestion.

3. Water helps to remove waste from the body

When the body is dehydrated, it cannot correctly remove waste as urine or feces.

Water helps the kidneys to filter toxins and waste while the organ retains essential nutrients and electrolytes. When the body is dehydrated, the kidneys retain fluid.

Dehydration can also result in hard or lumpy stools and constipation. Water keeps waste moving by softening or loosening hardened stools.

Water also helps the body to recover from digestive problems, such as diarrhea and indigestion.

When waste builds up in the body, people may feel bloated, swollen, and tired. Bloating can add inches to a person's waist.

Staying hydrated is a good way to avoid retaining waste, which may add a few extra pounds.

4. Drinking water can reduce overall liquid calorie intake

Water is a calorie-free alternative to energy drinks or juice.

It is easy to accumulate liquid calories by drinking soda, juice, or sweetened coffee or tea.

Most people also ignore how many calories they consume in sports drinks or alcoholic beverages.

Replacing even a few high-calorie drinks each day for water or other no-calorie beverages, such as herbal tea, may have long-term weight loss benefits.

Authors of a 2012 study found that replacing two or more high-caloric beverages for non-caloric drinks every day for 6 months resulted in an average weight loss of between 2 and 2.5 percent in a group of females with obesity.

In a study from 2015, female participants drank 250 mL of water after lunch each day while attending a 24-week weight loss program. They lost 13.6 percent more weight than women in the same program who drank the same volume of diet beverages after lunch.

Results of a large-scale study showed that men and women who replaced one serving of a sugar-sweetened beverage for water or a low-calorie drink every day for 4 years gained 0.49 fewer kilograms (kg) than a similar group who had made no changes.

The same study found that adults who replaced at least one serving of fruit juice with water or a low-calorie drink gained 0.35 kg less than their counterparts.

5. Water is necessary to burn fat

Without water, the body cannot properly metabolize stored fat or carbohydrates.

The process of metabolizing fat is called lipolysis. The first step of this process is hydrolysis, which occurs when water molecules interact with triglycerides (fats) to create glycerol and fatty acids.

Drinking enough water is essential for burning off fat from food and drink, as well as stored fat.

A mini-review from 2016 found that increased water intake led to increased lipolysis and a loss of fat in animal studies.

6. Water helps with workouts

One of the most important components of any weight loss plan is exercise.

Water helps muscles, connective tissues, and joints to move correctly. It also helps the lungs, heart, and other organs to work effectively as they ramp up activity during exercise.

Being hydrated reduces the risk of things that can get in the way of a good workout, such as muscle cramps and fatigue.

Always drink water before, during, and after exercise to avoid dehydration.

Keeping water close at hand is essential, especially if exercising in hot, humid, or very sunny conditions.

How much water do you need to drink?

Recommended water intake relates to factors such as age and health.

There is no standard recommendation for how much water to drink. Some people require more or less water, depending on a variety of factors, including:

• activity level
• age
• body size
• temperature
• humidity
• sun exposure
• health status

Most health authorities suggest ranges for daily water intake. The following water intake recommendations are from the National Academy of Medicine (NAM) in the United States:

• 2,700 mL/day for adult women
• 3,700 mL/day for adult men

Getting enough water

A 2013 study of results from the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey 2005–2010 found that most adolescent males drink more water than NAM recommends each day.

However, results showed that many adults, especially older adults, did not drink enough water to meet NAM's guidelines.

Of the individuals aged 20–50, 42.7 percent of males and 40.6 percent of females did not meet NAM recommendations. Of those 71 years of age or older, 94.7 percent of males and 82.6 of females did not meet the guidelines.

The following tips can help to increase water intake:

• drinking at least one 8-ounce glass of water with each meal
• carrying water in a reusable water bottle
• drinking extra water when exercising or during physical activity
• drinking extra water when it is warm, humid, or very sunny
• keeping a glass of water near the bed
• eating more soups and liquid-rich meals, such as curries, stews, and smoothies
• eating fruits and vegetables with high water contents, especially berries, grapes, melons, tomatoes, celery, cucumbers, and lettuce

Intermittent fasting involves entirely or partially abstaining from eating for a set amount of time, before eating regularly again.

Some studies suggest that this way of eating may offer benefits such as fat loss, better health, and increased longevity. Proponents claim that an intermittent fasting program is easier to maintain than traditional, calorie-controlled diets.

Each person's experience of intermittent fasting is individual, and different styles will suit different people.

In this article, we discuss the research behind the most popular types of intermittent fasting and provide tips on how to maintain this type of diet.

Seven ways to do intermittent fasting

There are various methods of intermittent fasting, and people will prefer different styles. Read on to find out about seven different ways to do intermittent fasting.

1. Fast for 12 hours a day

Different styles of intermittent fasting may suit different people.

The rules for this diet are simple. A person needs to decide on and adhere to a 12-hour fasting window every day.

According to some researchers, fasting for 10–16 hours can cause the body to turn its fat stores into energy, which releases ketones into the bloodstream. This should encourage weight loss.

This type of intermittent fasting plan may be a good option for beginners. This is because the fasting window is relatively small, much of the fasting occurs during sleep, and the person can consume the same number of calories each day.

The easiest way to do the 12-hour fast is to include the period of sleep in the fasting window.

For example, a person could choose to fast between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. They would need to finish their dinner before 7 p.m. and wait until 7 a.m. to eat breakfast but would be asleep for much of the time in between.

2. Fasting for 16 hours

Fasting for 16 hours a day, leaving an eating window of 8 hours, is called the 16:8 method or the Leangains diet.

During the 16:8 diet, men fast for 16 hours each day, and women fast for 14 hours. This type of intermittent fast may be helpful for someone who has already tried the 12-hour fast but did not see any benefits.

On this fast, people usually finish their evening meal by 8 p.m. and then skip breakfast the next day, not eating again until noon.

A study on mice found that limiting the feeding window to 8 hours protected them from obesity, inflammation, diabetes, and liver disease, even when they ate the same total number of calories as mice that ate whenever they wished.

3. Fasting for 2 days a week

People following the 5:2 diet eat standard amounts of healthful food for 5 days and reduce calorie intake on the other 2 days.

During the 2 fasting days, men generally consume 600 calories and women 500 calories.

Typically, people separate their fasting days in the week. For example, they may fast on a Monday and Thursday and eat normally on the other days. There should be at least 1 non-fasting day between fasting days.

There is limited research on the 5:2 diet, which is also known as the Fast diet. A study involving 107 overweight or obese women found that restricting calories twice weekly and continuous calorie restriction both led to similar weight loss.

The study also found that this diet reduced insulin levels and improved insulin sensitivity among participants.

A small-scale study looked at the effects of this fasting style in 23 overweight women. Over the course of one menstrual cycle, the women lost 4.8 percent of their body weight and 8.0 percent of their total body fat. However, these measurements returned to normal for most of the women after 5 days of normal eating.

4. Alternate day fasting

There are several variations of the alternate day fasting plan, which involves fasting every other day.

For some people, alternate day fasting means a complete avoidance of solid foods on fasting days, while other people allow up to 500 calories. On feeding days, people often choose to eat as much as they want.

One study reports that alternate day fasting is effective for weight loss and heart health in both healthy and overweight adults. The researchers found that the 32 participants lost an average of 5.2 kilograms (kg), or just over 11 pounds (lb), over a 12-week period.

Alternate day fasting is quite an extreme form of intermittent fasting, and it may not be suitable for beginners or those with certain medical conditions. It may also be difficult to maintain this type of fasting in the long term.

5. A weekly 24-hour fast

On a 24-hour diet, a person can have teas and calorie-free drinks.

Fasting completely for 1 or 2 days a week, known as the Eat-Stop-Eat diet, involves eating no food for 24 hours at a time. Many people fast from breakfast to breakfast or lunch to lunch.

People on this diet plan can have water, tea, and other calorie-free drinks during the fasting period.

People should return to normal eating patterns on the non-fasting days. Eating in this manner reduces a person's total calorie intake but does not limit the specific foods that the individual consumes.

A 24-hour fast can be challenging, and it may cause fatigue, headaches, or irritability. Many people find that these effects become less extreme over time as the body adjusts to this new pattern of eating.

People may benefit from trying a 12-hour or 16-hour fast before transitioning to the 24-hour fast.

6. Meal skipping

This flexible approach to intermittent fasting may be good for beginners. It involves occasionally skipping meals.

People can decide which meals to skip according to their level of hunger or time restraints. However, it is important to eat healthful foods at each meal.

Meal skipping is likely to be most successful when individuals monitor and respond to their body's hunger signals. Essentially, people using this style of intermittent fasting will eat when they are hungry and skip meals when they are not.

This may feel more natural for some people than the other fasting methods.

7. The Warrior Diet

The Warrior Diet is a relatively extreme form of intermittent fasting.

The Warrior Diet involves eating very little, usually just a few servings of raw fruit and vegetables, during a 20-hour fasting window, then eating one large meal at night. The eating window is usually only around 4 hours.

This form of fasting may be best for people who have tried other forms of intermittent fasting already.

Supporters of the Warrior Diet claim that humans are natural nocturnal eaters and that eating at night allows the body to gain nutrients in line with its circadian rhythms.

During the 4-hour eating phase, people should make sure that they consume plenty of vegetables, proteins, and healthful fats. They should also include some carbohydrates.

Although it is possible to eat some foods during the fasting period, it can be challenging to stick to the strict guidelines on when and what to eat in the long term. Also, some people struggle with eating such a large meal so close to bedtime.

There is also a risk that people on this diet will not eat enough nutrients, such as fiber. This can increase the risk of cancer and have an adverse effect on digestive and immune health.

Tips for maintaining intermittent fasting

Yoga and light exercise may help to make intermittent fasting easier.

It can be challenging to stick to an intermittent fasting program.

The following tips may help people stay on track and maximize the benefits of intermittent fasting:

• Staying hydrated. Drink lots of water and calorie-free drinks, such as herbal teas, throughout the day.
• Avoiding obsessing over food. Plan plenty of distractions on fasting days to avoid thinking about food, such as catching up on paperwork or going to see a movie.
• Resting and relaxing. Avoid strenuous activities on fasting days, although light exercise such as yoga may be beneficial.
• Making every calorie count. If the chosen plan allows some calories during fasting periods, select nutrient-dense foods that are rich in protein, fiber, and healthful fats. Examples include beans, lentils, eggs, fish, nuts, and avocado.
• Eating high-volume foods. Select filling yet low-calorie foods, which include popcorn, raw vegetables, and fruits with high water content, such as grapes and melon.
• Increasing the taste without the calories. Season meals generously with garlic, herbs, spices, or vinegar. These foods are extremely low in calories yet are full of flavor, which may help to reduce feelings of hunger.
• Choosing nutrient-dense foods after the fasting period. Eating foods that are high in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients helps to keep blood sugar levels steady and prevent nutrient deficiencies. A balanced diet will also contribute to weight loss and overall health.

Outlook

There are many different ways to do intermittent fasting, and there is no single plan that will work for everyone. Individuals will experience the best results if they try out the various styles to see what suits their lifestyle and preferences.

Regardless of the type of intermittent fasting, fasting for extended periods when the body is unprepared can be problematic.

These forms of dieting may not be suitable for everyone. If a person is prone to disordered eating, these approaches may exacerbate their unhealthy relationship with food.

People with health conditions, including diabetes, should speak to a doctor before attempting any form of fasting.

For the best results, it is essential to eat a healthful and balanced diet on non-fasting days. If necessary, a person can seek professional help to personalize an intermittent fasting plan and avoid pitfalls.

For more information, see MNT's ultimate beginner's guide to intermittent fasting.

The FlexiSpot Deskcise Pro in all its glory.

It is now common knowledge that sitting still for hours every day is bad for our health.

But many of us work in office environments, where a sedentary position is necessary.

Standing desks have become quite common over recent years, but they don't allow you much scope for physical exertion.

Therefore, when FlexiSpot contacted me to ask if I would like to trial their Deskcise Pro, I jumped at the chance.

In short, it's a desk with pedals, which allows you to cycle while you work.

I chose to give this particular product a go because it ticked a couple of vital boxes for me: one, I am a relatively keen cyclist; and two, it seemed like it might be amusing to get everyone in the office to have a go.

After all, watching someone furiously pump the pedals while trying to type is sure to raise a few chuckles.

Was it any good?

Before the desk arrived, I had some reservations; I couldn't really see it working that well. My main concerns were that it would be too noisy in an office environment and that I wouldn't be able to type as I bobbed up and down with each pedal push.

In both regards, I was pleasantly surprised. The bike is silent and, actually, typing while cycling is quite easy. Because of the range of adjustments to saddle height and desk position, it is easy to find a setting that works for you.

Over the course of a few days, I spent a few minutes to an hour testing the Deskcise Pro. However, I was careful not to work up a sweat; our office is relatively small, and I didn't think that would be fair on my colleagues. That said, I could imagine that keeping my blood pumping and muscles working might benefit my health in the long run.

Overall, I enjoyed the experience, and I will continue to use it sporadically. However, I am but one man, so I asked my colleagues to try the contraption for themselves. Here's what they had to say.

James is not dressed for physical activity.

James, our senior editor, had the following to say:

"The FlexiSpot Deskcise Pro was surprisingly easy to use, and I soon found myself working, unconscious of the fact that I was cycling away!"

"Changing the settings was simple enough, and the desk component provided welcome wrist support."

"My desk setup is quite busy, however, and it was tricky trying to fit everything onto the surface that the device offers."

However, he goes on, "I would also recommend wearing cool, loose-fitting clothing when using the FlexiSpot Deskcise Pro; I got quite hot wearing jeans!"

The picture above demonstrates the rather complex desk setup that James needed to make up for the lack of desk space. It also shows his inappropriate cycling attire.

"Surprisingly comfortable, the cycle desk helps to keep you focused and alert. It feels good to be moving while working rather than being slumped in a chair. It was also surprisingly easy to read and type documents while maintaining a rhythmic cycle."

Copy editor Isy

She goes on, saying, "However, the wrist support was in the wrong place for me so hindered typing somewhat. There is also not much space on the desk for anything other than a laptop, so it would probably need to be an additional desk for someone, rather than their main place of work."

Popular all round

The desk seemed to win over some members of the team who were, initially, resolutely against the idea. For instance, despite initial hesitations, news writer Maria seems to have been wooed by the desk.

She explains, "I am not a very physically active person, and I am most definitely not into cycling. However, I decided to give the Deskcise Pro a try and see how I would fare."

"Although, as I said, I am not the sportiest of people, I often begin to feel fidgety at work, and I have especially restless legs, so I wondered if the desk could help me deal with that and increase my focus. And it did!"

"Cycling helps me keep my restless legs occupied and my mind free to deal with the business at hand."

"I also appreciate," she adds, "how customizable the desk is: it's great that I can set it to fit my (very short) height, and I also appreciate that I can customize the pedaling resistance so that I can move at the pace that I'm most comfortable with."

"The only problem is that I fear I may soon become addicted and start fighting my colleagues for it!"

News copy editor Jasmin was similarly impressed, saying, "When I first saw the bike, I was worried that the motion of my legs while cycling would make the desk wobble around, or that the wrist support would be positioned strangely and make typing awkward."

"How wrong I was! I knew in my first few seconds of using the bike that I would become attached to it."

"The seat is so comfortable, the pedals move so smoothly, and the desk is the perfect size — not to mention the super useful cup holder," Jasmin adds. "When you're sitting at a desk all day like we in this office are, using the bike is a welcome break from shoulder ache while still being able to carry on working when we're crunched."

"I've heard that exercise can boost concentration and productivity, and this bike is proof of that! When I use it, I'm crossing things off of my to-do list faster than ever before. To summarize: an excellent addition to the MNT office."

So, despite initial reservations in some camps, the FlexiSpot Deskcise Pro is a hit with the folks at MNT — although it might be improved with a larger desk area and an adjustable wrist support.

Women, sitting for too long may impair your ability to recover following sickness or injury.

Prolonged sitting harms our health in various ways. The more time you spend sitting down, the likelier you are to die prematurely, studies show.

And, sadly, exercising does not cancel out these pernicious effects.

Too much sitting impairs our cardiovascular health and raises the risk of diabetes, researchers warn.

Some studies have even suggested that it may cause the brain to shrink.

With age, sitting becomes even more dangerous, as increased sedentarism heightens the risk of walking disability, as well as dementia, among seniors.

Now, a new study looks at the effects of sedentary behavior on aging women. Researchers at the University of Queensland (UQ) in St. Lucia, Australia, studied the impact of prolonged sitting on 5,462 middle-aged women who were clinically followed for 12 years.

The findings were published in the American Journal of Epidemiology.

What is frailty? How does it affect women?

Researchers Maja Susanto, Ruth Hubbard, and Paul A Gardiner analyzed data from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women's Health.

The women enrolled in the study were born between 1946 and 1951, and they self-reported their daily sitting time.

The researchers assessed the women's frailty using the FRAIL scale, ranging from 0 (healthy) to 5 (frail) and broke down sitting time into three categories: low (3.5 hours each day), medium (5.5 hours per day), and high (10 hours per day).

Study co-author Paul Gardiner, who works in UQ's Centre for Health Services Research, explains the meaning of frailty.

"Frailty means that you have fewer reserves to recover from illness or injury. It's also linked to increased risk of hospitalization, falls, moving into residential care facilities, and premature mortality."

Previous studies have shown that, although women tend to live longer than men, they are at a comparatively higher risk of frailty. This is what prompted the researchers to study this aspect exclusively in women.

Sitting increases frailty, effects are reversible

Overall, Gardiner says, the study revealed that "[w]omen who had high levels of sitting — about 10 hours a day — were more at risk of becoming frail."

By contrast, he says, "Those with consistently less sitting time had a lower risk of developing problems." However, the detrimental effects of prolonged sitting seemed to be reversible.

"Participants who decreased their sitting time by approximately 2 hours per day reduced their risk of vulnerability," he says, urging women to take preventive measures.

"In order to remove the increased risk altogether, women should try and limit their sitting time to low or medium levels, as well as being physically active."

Paul Gardiner

For optimal health, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend that adults who are aged 65 and above engage weekly in at least 2.5 hours of "moderate-intensity aerobic activity" as well as muscle strengthening exercise twice per week.

Walking briskly, mopping the floors, or mowing the lawn all count as moderate-intensity physical activity.

Lifting weights or using a resistance band are exercises that can strengthen your muscle groups.

Researchers find a new biomarker for fatty liver disease and suggest that gut bacteria may hold the key to preventing this condition.

In nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), excess fat builds up in the liver, thereby inhibiting its normal functioning.

Certain people are more at risk of developing this condition, and this includes those with obesity, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

It is hard to diagnose NAFLD in its early stages, however, as it does not display many telling symptoms at first.

This might mean that the condition may remain "hidden" until it has reached a more advanced stage, causing liver damage.

For this reason, researchers have been looking for ways of detecting liver disease as it begins to develop, so that it can be addressed as soon as possible.

Specialists from Britain, Italy, Spain, and France now say that it may be possible to detect NAFLD early on by looking at certain gut biomarkers.

"We have discovered exciting connections between gut microbiota composition, fatty liver, and carbohydrate metabolism," explains Prof. José Manuel Fernández-Real, from the University of Girona in Spain.

"This contributes," he adds, "to better understand[ing] why 30 percent of [people] with massive obesity do not develop a fatty liver despite dramatically increased fat mass."

The team's findings have been published in the journal Nature Medicine.

A new biomarker for fatty liver

The researchers analyzed the relevant medical data of 100 women who had a diagnosis of obesity — but who were free of diabetes — and who also had NAFLD.

More specifically, the team looked at a series of samples collected from the participants, including samples of blood, urine, feces, and liver biopsies.

They compared these data with sets of corresponding data collected from healthy individuals, in order to identify any telling differences between the two sets.

A detailed analysis revealed that raised levels of a compound called phenylacetic acid (PAA), which is released by certain gut bacteria, was linked to the excess fat buildup in the liver and early onset of NAFLD.

This means that PAA could be considered as a NAFLD biomarker, and diagnosing this condition would therefore be just one simple blood test away.

"Through this work we may have uncovered a biomarker for the disease itself," notes study leader Dr. Lesley Hoyles, from Imperial College London in the United Kingdom. "Overall, it demonstrates the microbiome is definitely having an effect on our health."

But the scientists also found that NAFLD was associated with certain changes in the composition of the gut microbiome.

A case of 'chicken and egg?'

Interestingly, the researchers saw that as NAFLD advanced, the number of genes encoded by gut bacteria gradually decreased, suggesting that the microbiome became poorer and less diverse in its microbial makeup.

We already know that the number of active genes encoded by gut bacteria is approximately 500 times greater than the number of genes found in human DNA, but how this may affect our overall health and biological functioning still holds many mysteries.

Still, scientists believe that a less diverse gut microbiome may be an indicator of poorer health — people with metabolic diseases, for instance, have fewer active genes encoded by gut bacteria.

And now, the researchers involved in the current study have observed a similar association in the case of fatty liver disease, noting that a less diverse gut microbiome was linked to symptoms of metabolic problems. This includes liver inflammation and non-responsiveness to insulin, the hormone that is key to regulating blood sugar levels.

In looking at other studies involving animal models, the researchers found that increasing PAA levels in healthy mice caused fat buildup in the rodents' livers.

Moreover, effecting fecal transplants with samples taken from NAFLD patients to mice whose gut microbiomes had been wiped clean with antibiotics also led to fatty livers in the rodents.

All this evidence points to a strong link between a poorer gut microbiome with a modified bacterial population and the development of NAFLD. But despite this, it is unclear whether changes in the gut bacteria cause the disease, or vice versa.

"The scientific literature shows that the microbiome changes in a range of diseases. But it may be a case of 'chicken and egg,' and not necessarily cause and effect."

Dr. Lesley Hoyles

Simpler screening methods on the horizon

Still, the researchers involved in the current study are excited about their findings and what new possibilities they may lead to, in terms of diagnostic procedures.

As senior author Dr. Marc-Emmanuel Dumas explains, "The concept that we could use chemical signals produced by our gut bacteria to spot disease is an exciting one."

"It opens the possibility that [a] simple screening test at a [...] clinic could one day be used to spot the early signs of disease," he adds.

He warns, however, that "these kinds of tests may still be a number of years away from the clinic."

The next step from here, explains the senior author, will be to refine our understanding of PAA and how it might be used as a diagnostic tool for fatty liver disease. He also hopes that, in the future, we may be able to prevent the development of NAFLD by targeting the gut microbiome.

"We now need to explore this link further and to see if compounds like PAA can indeed be used to identify patients at risk and even predict the course of disease," noted Dr. Dumas.

"The good news is that by manipulating gut bacteria, we may be able to prevent fatty liver disease and its long-term cardiometabolic complications," he concludes.